Table of Contents

• Coverage
• Dataset Description
  • Methods & Sampling
  • Data Processing Description
• Data Files
• Parameters
• Deployments
• Project Information
• Funding

Behavioral observations of lionfish, with a focus on hunting activity throughout the day, at native Pacific (Guam and the Philippines) vs. invasive Atlantic locations (Bahamas and Caymans) to assess possible differences between ranges. Particular emphasis was placed on species hunted, time spent hunting and total numbers of kills and strikes. The investigators hypothesized that lionfish at invaded locations would have higher success at killing prey and spend less time hunting.

Related Publications:
Cure K., Benkwitt C.E., Kindinger T.L., Pickering E.A., Pusack T.J., McIlwain J.L, Hixon M.A. (2012) Comparative behavior of red lionfish Pterois volitans on native Pacific versus invaded Atlantic coral reefs. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 467: 181-192. DOI: 10.3354/meps09942

Pusack, T.J., Kindinger T.L., Benkwitt C.E., Katherine, C. (submitted) Invasive red lionfish (Pterois volitans) grow faster and larger in the Atlantic Ocean than in their native Pacific range. Marine Ecology Progress Series.

This sub-project aimed to compare native vs. invasive populations of lionfish, in order to assess some of the potential factors responsible for the invasive success of lionfish in the Atlantic. Assessment in the native range included analysis of behaviour and juvenile growth patterns, at two general locations: Guam and the Philippines. Behaviour was assessed via 10-minute observations on inividual lionfish, aiming to assess different individuals and their hunting behaviour as well as interactions with other species at different times of the day. Observations were done wherever lionfish were found, and included artificial habitats, coral reefs, sandy areas and reef channels with rock/boulder habitat. Observations in the native range were then compared to those at invaded locations (Bahamas and Caymans) undertaken with identical methods by other members of the team. Data were QA/QCd by spot checking against original field data sheets.

Lengthy notes/comments extracted from dataset are below. Indicated by 'see_Note_x' in the data.

Notes in strikes_at_species column:
Strikes_at_sp_Note_1 = Not visible but around P. coelestis and wanting to feed on them
Stikes_at_sp_Note_2 = Plotosus lineatus and something not visible in the water column
Strikes_at_sp_Note_3 = Recruits pomacentrids & cardinals less than 2cm
Strikes_at_sp_Note_4 = Unidentified Apogonidae with bright yell spot on the caudal peduncle

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Notes in num_blows column:
Num_blows_Note_1 = 4 (plus 3 continuous bLings at a little sandy bay under a rock)
 
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Notes in blows_at_species column:
Blows_at_sp_Note_1 = unidentified; not possible to view from distance
Blows_at_sp_Note_2 = Labrid small; perhaps Labroides bicolor
Blows_at_sp_Note_3 = unidentified; cannot see from distance at which observer located and water murky; only prey IDd nearby was yell and blue little fish
Blows_at_sp_Note_4 = While being cleaned by L. dimidaitus
Blows_at_sp_Note_5 = cardinalfish bright yelL margin on dorsal fin

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Notes in aggression_at_species column:
Aggrssn_at_Note_1 = 2 pennant bannerfish(H.chrysostomus);agression=approach w flared fins & upright spines;slight movement displaced Heniochus
Aggrssn_at_Note_2 = 2X P.antennata;flaring fins & moving to defend;1 against lrgr PTVO(27cm) that it encntrd looking for diff spot;got it out of its hole & occupied hole
Aggrssn_at_Note_3 = Parrotfish large darting by; lion reacted by flaring spines defensively

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Notes in killed_species column:
Killed_sp_Note_1 = Invert maybe;not seen;definite action under boat while upsidedown amongst algae overgrowth
Killed_sp_Note_2 = Not visible but feeding observed;must be prey small enough to not be seen at distance of observation
Killed_sp_Note_3 = Not visible but clearly lion turned around from position and ate

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Notes in aggressive_species column:
Agg_sp_Note_1 = PTVO smaller size (13) approached with flared fins trying to get a hunting spot
Agg_sp_Note_2 = PTVO smaller size approached it with flared fins and kept staring at it;no close approach but enought to cause this animal to move away and stop rest. This PTVO was observed by Brett Taylor, line 39
Agg_sp_Note_3 = Ptvo larger 37 cm; kept displacing this one from its position
Agg_sp_Note_4 = Ptvo larger 37 cm;  displaced it from its position
Agg_sp_Note_5 = PTAT 10cm moved voli from its spot

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Notes in location column:
Loc_Note_1 = 260 deg from mooring / 270 deg from x-mas tree / 310 deg over little mushroom
Loc_Note_2 = 10 deg from ally with mallet head on right / mallet head is 235 deg from x-mas tree
Loc_Note_3 = 80 deg to triple head (?) boundary ~10 m/past other 2 300 deg to lion ledge/ 3 fan rock
Loc_Note_4 = New head across alley from flag 290/300 to Lion ledge (closer to lion ledge)
Loc_Note_5 = Near Goniopora field;Under plate of coral at cleaning stn being cleaned by a blue&yell wrasse w straight caudal fin
Loc_Note_6 = On table Porites rus at the northernmost part of the dive; towards Love Rock; next to previous
Loc_Note_7 = On table Porites rus at the northernmost part of the dive; towards Love Rock
Loc_Note_8 = Under ledge of almost dead skirt like coral w no bumps;not P.rus;reddish color;looks like P. asteroides in Caribbn
Loc_Note_9 = Massive semi dead;under larger volitans;moved & sat next to the big guy & repositioned itself
Loc_Note_10 = On Boulder;Non Coral;undrneath & close to PTVO 32cm;ended next to big guy;at cleaning stn at branching Porites
Loc_Note_11 = At boulder;non-coral;next to Prus cleaning colony;another PTVO under it in silt

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Notes in body_orientation column:
Body_Note_1 = Upright and exposed but upon approach kept running away and tucking itself more and more until ended up in cave with only pectorals and tail seen
Body_Note_2 = Area w sm colonies of Pocillopora & recruit Chromis;vertcl position;under boat canopy;recently fallen;couldnt find lttle guy;kept envrnmnt dark & kept opening&closing space
Body_Note_3 = On top of massive boulder w somewhat live coral;horizntl position;next to darker phase volitans almost touching each other
Body_Note_4 = Under sm ledge near bottm facing wall vertically;diff place than othr times;but same head
Body_Note_5 = Upright on sandy bottom; under boulder; could be seen through a hole; right next to previous one

BCO-DMO Processing Notes:
- Changed parameter names to conform with BCO-DMO naming conventions.
- Removed apostrophes in the 'site' column. Replaced commas with semi-colons in the columns containing text.
- Added lat and lon for each site from the metadata sheet.
- Replaced blanks with 'nd' to indicate 'no data'.
- Replaced 'ICON' with 'ICON_reef' for consistency throughout dataset.
- Extracted very long notes/comments to improve visual display of the data in the browser.
- Edited notes/comments slightly to shorten length of fields.
- 27-Dec-2017: Removed embargo on dataset.

Invasive species are increasingly introduced by human activities to new regions of the world where those species have never existed previously. In the absence of natural enemies (predators, competitors, and diseases) from their homeland, invasives may have strong negative effects on invaded ecosystems, especially systems with fewer species ("ecological release"), and may even drive native species extinct. However, if native natural enemies can somehow control the invaders ("ecological resistance"), then ecological disruption can be prevented or at least moderated. Most of the many invasive species in the sea have been seaweeds and invertebrates, and the few documented invasive marine fishes have not caused major problems. However, this situation has recently changed in a stunning and ominous way. In the early 1990s, lionfish (Pterois volitans) from the Pacific Ocean were accidentally or intentionally released from aquaria to the ocean in the vicinity of Florida. Camouflaged by shape and color, protected by venomous spines, consuming native coral-reef fishes voraciously, and reproducing rapidly, lionfish have subsequently undergone a population explosion. They now range from the mid-Atlantic coast of the US to the Caribbean, including the Bahamas. Native Atlantic fishes have never before encountered this spiny, stealthy, efficient predator and seldom take evasive action. In fact, the investigator has documented that a single lionfish is capable of reducing the abundance of small fish on a small coral patch reef by nearly 80% in just 5 weeks. There is great concern that invasive lionfish may severely reduce the abundance of native coral-reef fishes important as food for humans (e.g., grouper and snapper in their juvenile stages) as well as species that normally maintain the integrity of coral reefs (e.g., grazing parrotfishes that can prevent seaweeds from smothering corals). There are far more species of coral-reef fish in the Pacific than the Atlantic, so this invasion may represent a case of extreme ecological release with minor ecological resistance. Dr. Hixon and colleagues will study the mechanisms of ecological release in lionfish, as well as examine potential sources of ecological resistance in the heavily invaded Bahamas. Because very little is known about the ecology and behavior of lionfish in their native Pacific range, he will also conduct comparative studies in both oceans, which may provide clues regarding the extreme success of this invasion. In the Bahamas, the investigator will document the direct and indirect effects on native species of the ecological release of lionfish, both as a predator and as a competitor. These studies will be conducted at various scales of time and space, from short-term experiments on small patch reefs, to long-term experiments and observations on large reefs. Whereas direct effects involve mostly changes in the abundance of native species, indirect effects can be highly variable. For example, lionfish may actually indirectly benefit some native species by either consuming or outcompeting the competitors of those natives. The project will explore possible ecological resistance to the invasion by determining whether any native Bahamian species are effective natural enemies of lionfish, including predators, parasites, and competitors of both juvenile and adult lionfish. Comparative studies of natural enemies, as well as lionfish ecology and behavior, in both the Atlantic and the Pacific may provide clues regarding the explosive spread of lionfish in the Atlantic.

Regarding broader impacts, this basic research will provide information valuable to coral-reef and fisheries managers fighting the lionfish invasion in the US, the Bahamas, and the greater Caribbean, especially if sources of native ecological resistance are identified. The study will fund the PhD research of U.S. graduate students, as well as involve assistance and participation by a broad variety of undergraduates and reef/fisheries managers, including women, minorities, native Bahamians, and native Pacific islanders. Participation in this project will promote education in marine ecology and conservation biology directly via Dr. Hixon's and graduate students' teaching and outreach activities, and indirectly via the experiences of undergraduate field assistants and various associates.