Table of Contents

• Coverage
• Dataset Description
  • Methods & Sampling
  • Data Processing Description
• Data Files
• Related Publications
• Parameters
• Instruments
• Deployments
• Project Information
• Program Information
• Funding

Primary production is measured in situ as part of the monthly Bermuda Atlantic Time Series (BATS) cruises. 

Scope and field of application
Primary production is a fundamental ecological variable for understanding the flow of energy into an ecosystem as it supports the availability of organic material as building blocks for higher trophic levels. This method uses a radiocarbon ¹⁴C spike and liquid scintillation counter (LSC) techniques to quantify the rate of primary production. This procedure describes the method for the determination of primary production in seawater, expressed as milligrams of carbon per cubic meter per day (mg C m⁻³ day⁻¹) . This method is suitable for the assay of all levels of primary production found in the ocean.

 Primary production is defined as the rate of uptake of inorganic carbon (DIC) into particulate organic carbon (POC),

                                      DIC_n * POC¹⁴C * 1.05
                C uptake   =   -----------------------------    , where
                                              DIC¹⁴C 

C uptake = rate of carbon fixation (mg Carbon m⁻³ day⁻¹) 
DIC_n = naturally occurring dissolved inorganic carbon
POC¹⁴C = ¹⁴C spiked particulate organic carbon
DIC¹⁴C = ¹⁴C spiked dissolved inorganic carbon
1.05 = metabolic discrimination factor due to biological isotopic fractionation (preferable uptake of lighter isotopes)

Principle of analysis
The rate of carbon fixation by autotrophs in seawater is measured by tracing the uptake of radioactive ¹⁴C from the inorganic form to the particulate organic form. Radiocarbon is added at an assumed ratio to the total inorganic carbon content of the seawater sample. The uptake of radiocarbon by the particulate phytoplankton is converted to total carbon uptake by the application of this radiocarbon: total carbon ratio. Inorganic carbon is not measured because samples are acidified before analysis. The seawater is collected using the CTD at discrete depths every 20 meters from the surface to 140 meters. The radioactive ¹⁴C spike is added and samples are incubated in situ at their respective depths using a free-floating array. The array is deployed prior to first light and recovered after sunset to capture the dawn to dusk light cycle.

A liquid scintillation counter (LSC) is used to calculate the level of radioactivity in the sample and therefore the amount of ¹⁴C particulate organic carbon. The LSC measures the conversion of radioactive decay events into photons of light, which are detected by photomultiplier tubes and converted into electrical pulses. In order to aid the detection of radioactivity, a liquid scintillation cocktail is added (Ultima gold for this method). The cocktail contains both solvent and scintillator molecules. The radioactive decay from the ¹⁴C excites the solvent molecule, and the energy is transferred to the scintillator which re-emits the energy in the form of light. Often more than one type of scintillator is present in the cocktail to allow for the emission of light at a suitable wavelength to be detected by the photomultiplier tubes. The resulting electrical signal that is generated is recorded as counts per minute (CPM). 

For additional details, please see Protocols for the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study Core Measurements.

BCO-DMO Processing Notes:
 - added conventional header with dataset name, PI name, version date
 - modified parameter names to conform with BCO-DMO naming conventions
 - converted latitude and longitude to decimal degrees
 - added columns for Cruise_type, Cruise_num, Cast_type, Cast, and Bottle_number based on the ID column info
 - added column for ISO date
 - missing data identifier of -999 maintained as per PI request 

A full description of the BATS research program (including links to the processed BATS data) is available from the BATS Web site (see above for Project URL/ Project Website links). Any data contributed from selected ancillary projects are listed (linked) in the 'Datasets Collection' section below.  

Collaborative Research: The Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study: Sustained Biogeochemical, Ecosystem and Ocean Change Observations and Linkages in the North Atlantic (Years 31-35)
Awards OCE-1756105, OCE-1756054, and OCE-1756312)
NSF award abstract
Long-term observations over several decades are a powerful tool for investigating ocean physics, biology, and chemistry, and the response of the oceans to environmental change. The Bermuda Atlantic Time-Series Study, known as BATS, has been running continuously since 1988. The research goals of the BATS program are: (1) to improve our understanding of the time-varying components of the ocean carbon cycle and the cycles of related nutrient elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon; and, (2) to identify the relevant physical, chemical and ecosystem properties responsible for this variability. In addition, the BATS program has strong and diverse broader impacts, contributing to the field of ocean sciences by providing high quality ocean observations and data for seagoing scientists and modelers, and a framework through which researchers can conceive and test hypotheses. This award will support the operations of the BATS program for five more years.

The primary BATS research themes are as follows: (1) Quantify the role of ocean-atmosphere coupling and climate variability on air-sea exchange of CO2, and carbon export to the ocean interior; (2) Document trends and the controls on the interannual to decadal scale variability in carbon and nutrient cycles to their coupling in the surface and deep ocean via the Redfield Ratio paradigm; (3) Quantify the response of planktonic community structure and function, and impact on biogeochemical cycles to variability in surface fluxes and dynamical processes; (4) Facilitate development, calibration and validation of next generation oceanographic sensors, tools and technologies; and, (5) Generate a dataset that can be utilized by empiricists, modelers and students. This research integrates ocean physics, chemistry and biology into a framework for understanding oceanic processes and ocean change in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. The existing 29 years of BATS data provide robust constraints on seasonal and interannual variability, the response of the Sargasso Sea ecosystem to natural climate variability, and signal detection of potential ocean changes. This project would extend the BATS program through years 31-35 to address a series of ten interlinked questions through integrated research approaches and a multitude of collaborative efforts. In addition to the themes above, and embedded into the ten questions and approaches, the BATS team will focus on, for example, coupling of particle production and biogeochemistry; revisiting the complexities of the biological carbon pump; oxygen decline; and changes in the hydrography, physics, ocean carbon cycle and biogeochemistry of the Sargasso Sea. The highest quality data observation and collection will be maintained and used to address these questions. Importantly, a wide range of collaborations at the BATS site, spanning the physical and biogeochemical disciplines, will aid these broad goals. Strong links to community stakeholders, and close collaboration (including methods intercomparisons and personnel exchanges) with the Hawaii Ocean Time-series are proposed. This work will extend the research findings of the project into educational and training opportunities within and beyond the oceanographic community, including training and mentorship of both undergraduate and graduate students.

Please see the BATS Web site (http://bats.bios.edu) for additional information.

List of References (PDF)

Program description text taken from Chapter 1: Introduction from the Global Intercomparability in a Changing Ocean: An International Time-Series Methods Workshop report published following the workshop held November 28-30, 2012 at the Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences. The full report is available from the workshop Web site hosted by US OCB: http://www.whoi.edu/website/TS-workshop/home

Decades of research have demonstrated that the ocean varies across a range of time scales, with anthropogenic forcing contributing an added layer of complexity. In a growing effort to distinguish between natural and human-induced earth system variability, sustained ocean time-series measurements have taken on a renewed importance. Shipboard biogeochemical time-series represent one of the most valuable tools scientists have to characterize and quantify ocean carbon fluxes and biogeochemical processes and their links to changing climate (Karl, 2010; Chavez et al., 2011; Church et al., 2013). They provide the oceanographic community with the long, temporally resolved datasets needed to characterize ocean climate, biogeochemistry, and ecosystem change.

The temporal scale of shifts in marine ecosystem variations in response to climate change are on the order of several decades.  The long-term, consistent and comprehensive monitoring programs conducted by time-series sites are essential to understand large-scale atmosphere-ocean interactions that occur on interannual to decadal time scales.  Ocean time-series represent one of the most valuable tools scientists have to characterize and quantify ocean carbon fluxes and biogeochemical processes and their links to changing climate.

Launched in the late 1980s, the US JGOFS (Joint Global Ocean Flux Study; http://usjgofs.whoi.edu) research program initiated two time-series measurement programs at Hawaii and Bermuda (HOT and BATS, respectively) to measure key oceanographic measurements in oligotrophic waters. Begun in 1995 as part of the US JGOFS Synthesis and Modeling Project, the CARIACO Ocean Time-Series (formerly known as the CArbon Retention In A Colored Ocean) Program has studied the relationship between surface primary production, physical forcing variables like the wind, and the settling flux of particulate carbon in the Cariaco Basin.

The objective of these time-series effort is to provide well-sampled seasonal resolution of biogeochemical variability at a limited number of ocean observatories, provide support and background measurements for process-oriented research, as well as test and validate observations for biogeochemical models. Since their creation, the BATS, CARIACO and HOT time-series site data have been available for use by a large community of researchers.
 
Data from those three US funded, ship-based, time-series sites can be accessed at each site directly or by selecting the site name from the Projects section below.

The Ocean Carbon and Biogeochemistry (OCB) program focuses on the ocean's role as a component of the global Earth system, bringing together research in geochemistry, ocean physics, and ecology that inform on and advance our understanding of ocean biogeochemistry. The overall program goals are to promote, plan, and coordinate collaborative, multidisciplinary research opportunities within the U.S. research community and with international partners. Important OCB-related activities currently include: the Ocean Carbon and Climate Change (OCCC) and the North American Carbon Program (NACP); U.S. contributions to IMBER, SOLAS, CARBOOCEAN; and numerous U.S. single-investigator and medium-size research projects funded by U.S. federal agencies including NASA, NOAA, and NSF.

The scientific mission of OCB is to study the evolving role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle, in the face of environmental variability and change through studies of marine biogeochemical cycles and associated ecosystems.

The overarching OCB science themes include improved understanding and prediction of: 1) oceanic uptake and release of atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gases and 2) environmental sensitivities of biogeochemical cycles, marine ecosystems, and interactions between the two.

The OCB Research Priorities (updated January 2012) include: ocean acidification; terrestrial/coastal carbon fluxes and exchanges; climate sensitivities of and change in ecosystem structure and associated impacts on biogeochemical cycles; mesopelagic ecological and biogeochemical interactions; benthic-pelagic feedbacks on biogeochemical cycles; ocean carbon uptake and storage; and expanding low-oxygen conditions in the coastal and open oceans.

The United States Joint Global Ocean Flux Study was a national component of international JGOFS and an integral part of global climate change research.

The U.S. launched the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS) in the late 1980s to study the ocean carbon cycle. An ambitious goal was set to understand the controls on the concentrations and fluxes of carbon and associated nutrients in the ocean. A new field of ocean biogeochemistry emerged with an emphasis on quality measurements of carbon system parameters and interdisciplinary field studies of the biological, chemical and physical process which control the ocean carbon cycle. As we studied ocean biogeochemistry, we learned that our simple views of carbon uptake and transport were severely limited, and a new "wave" of ocean science was born. U.S. JGOFS has been supported primarily by the U.S. National Science Foundation in collaboration with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of Energy and the Office of Naval Research. U.S. JGOFS, ended in 2005 with the conclusion of the Synthesis and Modeling Project (SMP).